- 問題
- 解説
- 第1段落
- Various doctrines of human cognitive superiority are made plausible by a comparison of human beings and the chimpanzees.
- For questions of evolutionary cognition, this focus is one-sided.
- Consider the evolution of cooperation in social insects, such as the Matabele ant.
- After a termite attack, these ants provide medical services.
- Having called for help by means of a chemical signal, injured ants are brought back to the nest.
- Their increased chance of recovery benefits the entire colony.
- Red forest ants have the ability to perform simple arithmetic operations and to convey the results to other ants.
- 第2段落
- When it comes to adaptations in animals that require sophisticated neural control, evolution offers other spectacular examples.
- The banded archerfish is able to spit a stream of water at its prey, compensating for refraction at the boundary between air and water.
- It can also track the distance of its prey, so that the jet develops its greatest force just before impact.
- Laboratory experiments show that the banded archerfish spits on target even when the trajectory of its prey varies.
- Spit hunting is a technique that requires the same timing used in throwing, an activity otherwise regarded as unique in the animal kingdom.
- In human beings, the development of throwing has led to an enormous further development of the brain.
- And the archerfish?
- The calculations required for its extraordinary hunting technique are based on the interplay of about six neurons.
- Neural mini-networks could therefore be much more widespread in the animal kingdom than previously thought.
- 第3段落
- Research on honeybees has brought to light the cognitive capabilities of minibrains.
- Honeybees have no brains in the real sense.
- Their neuronal density, however, is among the highest in insects, with roughly 960 thousand neurons — far fewer than any vertebrate.
- Even if the brain size of honeybees is normalized to their body size, their relative brain size is lower than most vertebrates.
- Insect behavior should be less complex, less flexible, and less modifiable than vertebrate behavior.
- But honeybees learn quickly how to extract pollen and nectar from a large number of different flowers.
- They care for their young, organize the distribution of tasks, and, with the help of the waggle dance, they inform each other about the location and quality of distant food and water.
- 第4段落
- Early research by Karl von Frisch suggested that such abilities cannot be the result of inflexible information processing and rigid behavioral programs.
- Honeybees learn and they remember.
- The most recent experimental research has, in confirming this conclusion, created an astonishing picture of the honeybee’s cognitive competence.
- Their representation of the world does not consist entirely of associative chains.
- It is far more complex, flexible, and integrative.
- Honeybees show context-dependent learning and remembering, and even some forms of concept formation.
- Bees are able to classify images based on such abstract features as bilateral symmetry and radial symmetry; they can comprehend landscapes in a general way, and spontaneously come to classify new images.
- They have recently been promoted to the set of species capable of social learning and tool use.
- 第5段落
- In any case, the much smaller brain of the bee does not appear to be a fundamental limitation for comparable cognitive processes, or at least their performance.
- The similarities between mammals and bees are astonishing, but they cannot be traced to homologous neurological developments.
- As long as the animal’s neural architecture remains unknown, we cannot determine the cause of their similarity.
- 第1段落
問題
次の文章を読み, 下の設問(1)~(3)に答えなさい。
Various doctrines of human cognitive superiority are made plausible by a comparison of human beings and the chimpanzees. For questions of evolutionary cognition, this focus is one-sided. Consider the evolution of cooperation in social insects, such as the Matabele ant. After a termite attack, these ants provide medical services. Having called for help by means of a chemical signal, injured ants are brought back to the nest. Their increased chance of recovery benefits the entire colony. Red forest ants have the ability to perform simple arithmetic operations and to convey the results to other ants.
When it comes to adaptations in animals that require sophisticated neural control, evolution offers (a)other spectacular examples. The banded archerfish is able to spit a stream of water at its prey, compensating for refraction at the boundary between air and water. It can also track the distance of its prey, so that the jet develops its greatest force just before impact. Laboratory experiments show that the banded archerfish spits on target even when the trajectory of its prey varies. Spit hunting is a technique that requires the same timing used in throwing, an activity otherwise regarded as unique in the animal kingdom. In human beings, the development of throwing has led to an enormous further development of the brain. And the archerfish? The calculations required for its extraordinary hunting technique are based on the interplay of about six neurons. Neural mini-networks could therefore be much more widespread in the animal kingdom than previously thought.
Research on honeybees has brought to light the cognitive capabilities of (b)minibrains. Honeybees have no brains in the real sense. Their neuronal density, however, is among the highest in insects, with roughly 960 thousand neurons — far fewer than any vertebrate. Even if the brain size of honeybees is normalized to their body size, their relative brain size is lower than most vertebrates. Insect behavior should be less complex, less flexible, and less modifiable than vertebrate behavior. But honeybees learn quickly how to extract pollen and nectar from a large number of different flowers. They care for their young, organize the distribution of tasks, and, with the help of the waggle dance, they inform each other about the location and quality of distant food and water.
Early research by Karl von Frisch suggested that such abilities cannot be the result of inflexible information processing and rigid behavioral programs. Honeybees learn and they remember. The most recent experimental research has, in confirming this conclusion, created an astonishing picture of the honeybee’s cognitive competence. Their representation of the world does not consist entirely of associative chains. It is far more complex, flexible, and integrative. Honeybees show context-dependent learning and remembering, and even some forms of concept formation. Bees are able to classify images based on such abstract features as bilateral symmetry and radial symmetry; they can comprehend landscapes in a general way, and spontaneously come to classify new images. They have recently been promoted to the set of species capable of social learning and tool use.
(c)In any case, the much smaller brain of the bee does not appear to be a fundamental limitation for comparable cognitive processes, or at least their performance. The similarities between mammals and bees are astonishing, but they cannot be traced to homologous neurological developments. As long as the animal’s neural architecture remains unknown, we cannot determine the cause of their similarity.
(1) 下線部(a)の具体例として, このパラグラフではテッポウウオが獲物に水を噴射して狩りをする能力が紹介されている。その能力の特徴を3点, 日本語で箇条書きにしなさい。
(2) 下線部(b)でいうminibrainsとは, ミツバチの場合, 具体的にはどのような意味で用いられているか。本文に即して日本語で説明しなさい。
(3) 下線部(c)を和訳しなさい。
解説
第1段落
Various doctrines of human cognitive superiority are made plausible by a comparison of human beings and the chimpanzees.
Various doctrinesS of human cognitive superiority are madeV plausibleC by a comparison of human beings and the chimpanzees.
人間の認知の優位性の様々な信条Sは, 人間とチンパンジーの比較によってもっともらしくC されるV。
人間とチンパンジーを比較することで, 人間が認知の点で優れているという数多くの考えは, より正しい可能性が高くなる。
For questions of evolutionary cognition, this focus is one-sided.
For questions of evolutionary cognition, this focusS isV one-sidedC.
進化の認知の質問にとって, この焦点SはワンサイドCだ。
しかし, 進化的認知を問題にするとき, この観点は一方的だ。
Consider the evolution of cooperation in social insects, such as the Matabele ant.
ConsiderV the evolutionO of cooperation in social insects, such as the Matabele ant.
Matabeleアリのような, 社会的昆虫の中の協力の進化Oを考えなさいV。
マタベレアリのような, 社会性を持った昆虫の協調性の進化を考えてみよ。
After a termite attack, these ants provide medical services.
- termite「シロアリ」は知らないので, termite attackで深刻な攻撃くらいに解釈しておけばよい。
After a termite attack, these antsS provideV medical servicesO.
termiteな攻撃のあと, これらのアリSは医療サービスOを供給するV。
これらのアリは, シロアリの攻撃を受けたら, 仲間の手当てをする。
Having called for help by means of a chemical signal, injured ants are brought back to the nest.
- 前半はhavingの分詞構文なので過去形で訳して一旦区切り, 前半と後半をつなぐ接続詞は適当に考える。
Having called forV’ helpO’ by means of a chemical signal, injured antsS are brought backV to the nest.
化学的なサインの手段でヘルプO’を求めたV’。傷ついたアリSは巣へ持って帰られるV。
攻撃されたアリは, 化学的信号を出して救助を求めたのちに, 巣へ運ばれる。
Their increased chance of recovery benefits the entire colony.
Their increased chanceS of recovery benefitsV the entire colonyO.
回復の彼らの増やされた機会Sは, コロニー全体Oの利益になるV。
回復する可能性が高まることによって, その集団全体の利益につながる。
Red forest ants have the ability to perform simple arithmetic operations and to convey the results to other ants.
Red forest antsS haveV the abilityO to perform simple arithmetic operations and to convey the results to other ants.
赤い森のアリSは, シンプルな算数の操作を演じる, そして他のアリへ結果を伝える能力Oを持つV。
アカヤマアリは, 単純な算術演算を行い, その結果をほかのアリへ伝える能力を持っている。
第2段落
When it comes to adaptations in animals that require sophisticated neural control, evolution offers other spectacular examples.
- 関係代名詞節は, 文脈より, 直前のanimalsではなくadaptationsにかかる。
When it comes to adaptations in animals that requireV’ sophisticated neural controlO’, evolutionS offersV other spectacular examplesO.
動物の中の洗練された神経の制御O’を必要とするV’ような適用のことになると, 進化Sは他の驚くべき例Oを提供するV。
動物が高度な神経制御を必要とする行動を行うことに関しては, 進化によって他の顕著な例が示される。
The banded archerfish is able to spit a stream of water at its prey, compensating for refraction at the boundary between air and water.
The banded archerfishS is able to spitV a stream of waterO at its prey, compensating forV’ refractionO’ at the boundary between air and water.
banded archerfisSは, その獲物に向かって水の流れOをspitできるV。そして, 空気と水の間の境界で反射O’を埋め合わせるV’。
テッポウウオは, 空気と水の境界で生じる屈折を補正しながら, 獲物めがけて水流を発射することができる。
It can also track the distance of its prey, so that the jet develops its greatest force just before impact.
ItS can also trackV the distanceO of its prey, so that the jetS’ developsV’ its greatest forceO’ just before impact.
それSはまたその獲物の距離Oを追跡できるV。その結果, ジェットS’はインパクトのちょうど前にその最大の力O’を発達させるV’。
また, 獲物との距離を測り, 水流が獲物にあたる瞬間に勢いが最大になるようにすることもできる。
Laboratory experiments show that the banded archerfish spits on target even when the trajectory of its prey varies.
- trajectoryは知らなくてよい(2年前に出たばかりだったので, 当時の受験生は当然知っていたはず)。
Laboratory experimentsS showV that the banded archerfishS’ spits onV’ targetO’ even when the trajectoryS” of its prey variesV”.
実験室の実験Sは, その獲物のtrajectoryO”が変わるV”ときでさえ, banded archerfishS’はターゲットO’にspit onするV’ということを示すV。
実験室での実験によると, テッポウウオは, 獲物の軌道が変化しても, 命中させることができるということが分かった。
Spit hunting is a technique that requires the same timing used in throwing, an activity otherwise regarded as unique in the animal kingdom.
Spit huntingS isV a techniqueC that requiresV’ the same timingO’ used in throwing, an activity otherwise regarded as unique in the animal kingdom.
spitハンティングSは, 投げることの中で使われる同じタイミングO’を必要とするV’ようなテクニックCだ。さもなければ動物王国の中でユニークと見なされる活動。
水流で獲物を狩る行為は, 人間が物を投げる行為と同様に, タイミングを必要とする技術である。これは, もし一方にその能力が無ければ, もう一方は動物界で唯一の能力を持つとみなされていた行為だ。
In human beings, the development of throwing has led to an enormous further development of the brain.
- lead to A「Aに導く, Aをもたらす」
In human beings, the developmentS of throwing has led toV an enormous further developmentO of the brain.
人間の中で, 投げることの発達Sは, 脳の膨大なさらなる発達OをもたらしてきたV。
人類は, 物を投げる能力を発達させたことが, 脳のさらなる発達につながった。
And the archerfish?
And the archerfish?
そしてarcherfish?
ではテッポウウオはどうか?
The calculations required for its extraordinary hunting technique are based on the interplay of about six neurons.
The calculationsS required for its extraordinary hunting technique are based onV the interplayO of about six neurons.
その異常なハンティング技術のために必要とされる計算Sは, 約6の神経のinterplayOに基づくV。
その傑出した狩猟技術に必要な計算は, 約6個の神経間の相互作用に基づいている。
Neural mini-networks could therefore be much more widespread in the animal kingdom than previously thought.
Neural mini-networksS could therefore beV much more widespreadC in the animal kingdom than previously thought.
神経のミニネットワークSはだから, 以前思われていたよりも動物王国の中でよりずっと広範に及ぶC 可能性があるV。
したがって, 小さな神経回路網は, 動物界において, これまで想定されていたよりもずっと広範囲に存在している可能性がある。
第3段落
Research on honeybees has brought to light the cognitive capabilities of minibrains.
- bring A to light「Aを明るみに出す」(ここではAが長いので, bring to light Aの語順になっている)は, 一応熟語になっているが, 直訳でも意味は分かるので覚えなくてよい。
ResearchS on honeybees has broughtV to light the cognitive capabilitiesO of minibrains.
honeybeeに関する研究Sは, ミニ脳の認知能力Oを光へ持ってきたV。
ミツバチの研究によって, 小さい脳が持つ認知能力が明らかになってきた。
Honeybees have no brains in the real sense.
HoneybeesS haveV no brainsO in the real sense.
ミツバチSは本当の意味で無の脳Oを持つV。
ミツバチは厳密にいえば脳を持っていない。
Their neuronal density, however, is among the highest in insects, with roughly 960 thousand neurons — far fewer than any vertebrate.
- vertebrate「脊椎動物」は覚えておく。
Their neuronal densityS, however, isV among the highest in insects, with roughly 960 thousand neurons — far fewer than any vertebrate.
彼らの神経の密度Sは, しかし, 昆虫の中の最も高いの間だ。荒く96万の神経とともに。任意の脊椎動物よりもずっと少なく。
しかしミツバチは, 昆虫界では最も高い神経密度を持つ昆虫の一つだ。約96万の神経があるが, これはどんな脊椎動物よりもはるかに少ない。
Even if the brain size of honeybees is normalized to their body size, their relative brain size is lower than most vertebrates.
Even if the brain sizeS’ of honeybees is normalizedV to their body size, their relative brain sizeS isV lowerC than most vertebrates.
たとえもしミツバチの脳のサイズS’が彼らの体のサイズに対して標準化されるV’としても, 彼らの相対的な脳のサイズSはほとんどの脊椎動物よりも小さいC。
脳の大きさが体の大きさに合わせて標準化されたとしても, 相対的な脳の大きさは, ほとんどの脊椎動物よりも小さい。
Insect behavior should be less complex, less flexible, and less modifiable than vertebrate behavior.
Insect behaviorS should beV less complexC, less flexibleC, and less modifiableC than vertebrate behavior.
昆虫の行動Sは, 脊椎動物の行動よりもより複雑でなくCて, より柔軟性が無くCて, より修正可能でないC べきだV。
よって, 昆虫の行動は, 脊椎動物の行動と比べて, 単純で, 柔軟性が低く, 修正能力が低いはずだ。
But honeybees learn quickly how to extract pollen and nectar from a large number of different flowers.
- pollenやnectarは知らなくてよい。
But honeybeesS learnV quickly how to extract pollen and nectarO from a large number of different flowers.
しかし, ミツバチSは異なる花の多数からpollenとnectarを取り出す方法Oを素早く学ぶV。
しかしミツバチは, 多種多様な花のそれぞれについて, そこから花粉や蜜を取り出す方法を素早く学ぶ。
They care for their young, organize the distribution of tasks, and, with the help of the waggle dance, they inform each other about the location and quality of distant food and water.
TheyS1 care forV11 their youngO11, organizeV12 the distribution of tasksO12, and, with the help of the waggle dance, theyS2 informV2 each otherO2 about the location and quality of distant food and water.
彼らS1は彼らの若者O11を世話しV11て, タスクの分配O12を組織しV12て, waggleのダンスの助けとともに, 彼らS2は遠くの食料と水の位置と質についてそれぞれO2に知らせるV2。
ミツバチは, 子を世話し, 仕事の割り振りを行い, 8の字ダンスによって, 遠くの水や食料の場所や品質を仲間に伝える。
第4段落
Early research by Karl von Frisch suggested that such abilities cannot be the result of inflexible information processing and rigid behavioral programs.
Early researchS by Karl von Frisch suggestedV that such abilitiesS’ cannot beV’ the resultC’ of inflexible information processing and rigid behavioral programs.
Karl von Frischによる早い研究Sは, そのような能力S’は柔軟性のない情報の処理と固い行動のプログラムの結果C’であるはずがないV’ということを示唆したV。
カール・フォン・フリッシュによる初期の研究は, そのような能力は, 柔軟性のない情報処理能力や, 厳密に規定された行動計画から生じるはずがない, ということを示唆した。
Honeybees learn and they remember.
HoneybeesS1 learnV1 and theyS2 rememberV2.
ミツバチS1は学びV1, 彼らS2は覚えるV2。
ミツバチは, 学習し記憶する。
The most recent experimental research has, in confirming this conclusion, created an astonishing picture of the honeybee’s cognitive competence.
The most recent experimental researchS hasV, in confirming this conclusion, createdV an astonishing pictureO of the honeybee’s cognitive competence.
もっとも最近の経験の研究Sは, この結論を確認するとき, ミツバチの認知のcompetenceの驚くべき写真Oを作ってきたV。
この結論を裏付ける際に, 最近の実験に基づく研究は, ミツバチの認知能力に関して驚くべき状況を明らかにしてきた。
Their representation of the world does not consist entirely of associative chains.
- consist of A「Aから成る, Aで構成されている」
Their representationS of the world does not consist entirely ofV associative chainsO.
世界の彼らの表現Sは, 関連の鎖Oから全て成らないV。
ミツバチの世界の捉え方は, 関連するものを繋いでいくことだけではない。
It is far more complex, flexible, and integrative.
ItS isV far more complex, flexible, and integrativeC.
それSは, よりずっと複雑で, 柔軟的で, integrativeCだ。
それよりもずっと複雑で, 柔軟性があり, 統合されている。
Honeybees show context-dependent learning and remembering, and even some forms of concept formation.
- some forms of concept formationは, a kind of A「ある種のA」と同じ形で, kindの部分がsortやformなどよくわからない単語に変わっても意味はほとんど同じ。
HoneybeesS showV context-dependent learning and rememberingO, and even some forms of concept formation.
ミツバチSは, 文脈依存の学習と記憶Oを示すV。そして概念の形成のいくつかの形式さえ。
ミツバチは, 状況に依存して学習したり記憶したりするだけでなく, ある種の概念形成すらも行う。
Bees are able to classify images based on such abstract features as bilateral symmetry and radial symmetry; they can comprehend landscapes in a general way, and spontaneously come to classify new images.
- asを, classify A as Bのasだと考えると, such abstract featuresの「そのような」に該当する部分がはっきりしないので, such A as B「BのようなA」のasだと考える。
- bilateralは, 社会分野で「二国間の」という意味でたまに出てくる。
- come to do = learn to do = get to do「~するようになる」
BeesS1 are able to classifyV1 imagesO1 based on such abstract features as bilateral symmetry and radial symmetry; theyS2 can comprehendV21 landscapesO21 in a general way, and spontaneously come to classifyV22 new imagesO22.
ハチS1は, bilateralな左右対称やradialな左右対称のような抽象的な特徴に基づいた画像O1を分類できるV1。彼らS2は一般的な方法で風景O21を理解できV21て, 自発的に新しい画像O22を分類するようになるV22。
ハチは, 左右対称や放射対称などの抽象的な特徴に基づいて, 画像を分類できる。つまり, 風景を一般化してとらえることができ, 自然と新しい画像を分類できるようになる。
They have recently been promoted to the set of species capable of social learning and tool use.
TheyS have recently been promotedV to the set of species capable of social learning and tool use.
彼らSは最近社会的な学習と道具使用の能力がある種の集合まで促進されてきたV。
ハチは最近, 社会的学習や道具使用が可能な種に格上げされた。
第5段落
In any case, the much smaller brain of the bee does not appear to be a fundamental limitation for comparable cognitive processes, or at least their performance.
In any case, the much smaller brainS of the bee does not appear to beV a fundamental limitationC for comparable cognitive processes, or at least their performance.
いずれにせよ, ハチのよりずっと小さい脳Sが, 比較可能な認知のプロセスや, 少なくとも彼らのパフォーマンスにとって基本的な制限OであるようではないV。
いずれにせよ, ハチの脳が非常に小さいからといって, それが人間と同等の認知過程や, 少なくともハチの高度な行動を根本的に制限しているようには思われない。
The similarities between mammals and bees are astonishing, but they cannot be traced to homologous neurological developments.
The similaritiesS1 between mammals and bees areV1 astonishingC1, but theyS2 cannot be tracedV2 to homologous neurological developments.
哺乳類とハチの間の類似性S1は驚くべきC1だが, それらS2は同一の神経学の発達まで追跡されることができないV2。
哺乳類とハチは驚くほど似ているが, 同じ起源の神経学的発達までさかのぼることはできない。
As long as the animal’s neural architecture remains unknown, we cannot determine the cause of their similarity.
As long as the animal’s neural architectureS’ remainsV’ unknownC’, weS cannot determineV the causeO of their similarity.
動物の神経の構造S’が知られていないC’ ままであるV’限り, 私たちSはそれらの類似性の原因Oを決定できないV。
動物の神経構造が謎のままである限り, 哺乳類とハチが似ている原因を特定することはできない。
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